Short Vowel Sounds, the Past Perfect Tense, Explaining a Process and Summarising Expository Texts

1. Pure Short Vowels

A pure vowel (monophthong) is a single vowel sound where the mouth stays in one position. English has seven short pure vowels. Symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are shown between slashes.

2. Minimal Pairs

Minimal pair: Two words that differ in only one sound, such as "ship" and "sheep".

3. Common Difficulties

Many Ghanaian learners pronounce /æ/ like /a/ or /e/, so "bag" and "beg" may sound the same. Others say "cup" and "cop" alike. Practise by exaggerating the mouth shape: for /æ/ open the mouth wide with lips spread; for /ʌ/ keep the mouth half-open and relaxed; for /ɒ/ round the lips slightly.

4. Spelling Short Vowel Sounds

The same sound can be spelt in different ways. The /e/ sound is spelt "e" in "bed", "ea" in "bread" and "ai" in "said". The /ʌ/ sound is spelt "u" in "sun", "o" in "son" and "ou" in "young". Knowing these patterns helps you spell words you hear.

5. The Schwa

The schwa /ə/ is the most common sound in English. It is the weak, unstressed vowel in words such as "about", "teacher", "doctor" and "banana" (the first and last a). It also occurs in small words like "the", "a" and "to" in fast speech. Saying unstressed syllables with a schwa makes your English sound natural.

6. Practice Sentences

Read these sentences aloud, paying attention to the short vowels: "The fat cat sat on a black mat." /æ/ "Ten men sent the red pen." /e/ "The sun shone on the young duck." /ʌ/ "Tom got a hot pot from the shop." /ɒ/ "The good cook took a look at the book." /ʊ/ "Six big fish swim in the river." /ɪ/ Repeat each sentence slowly, then faster, keeping each vowel clear.

1. Forming the Past Perfect

2. Past Participles

3. Using the Past Perfect

Use the past perfect for the earlier of two past actions. The later action is usually in the simple past. "The match had started when we arrived." (First the match started, then we arrived.) "After she had swept the room, she washed the dishes." Time words such as "before", "after", "by the time", "already" and "when" often appear with the past perfect.

4. Past Perfect in Narratives

In stories, the past perfect lets the writer go back in time to explain earlier events: "Ama was nervous. She had never spoken in front of the whole school before. Her teacher had told her to practise, and she had rehearsed her speech every night for a week." The past perfect gives background without confusing the order of events.

5. Common Errors

Do not use the past perfect when there is only one past action or when the order is already clear: "I went to school yesterday", not "I had gone to school yesterday". Always use the past participle, not the simple past, after "had": "She had gone", not "She had went".

6. Past Perfect in Reported Speech

When we report what someone said about an earlier past event, the simple past often changes to the past perfect. Direct: Kofi said, "I lost my pen." Reported: Kofi said that he had lost his pen. Direct: The teacher said, "The class finished the test." Reported: The teacher said that the class had finished the test. This change shows that the action happened before the time of speaking.

1. Features of Process Writing

2. Model Paragraph: How to Make Groundnut Soup

To make groundnut soup, you need groundnut paste, meat or fish, tomatoes, onions, pepper, salt and water. First, wash the meat, season it with salt and onions, and steam it for about ten minutes. Next, mix the groundnut paste with a little warm water to form a smooth cream. After that, add the cream to the meat with more water and let it boil. Meanwhile, blend the tomatoes, onions and pepper and add them to the pot. Allow the soup to simmer for about forty minutes, stirring now and then so it does not burn, until the oil rises to the top. Finally, taste and adjust the salt, and serve the soup hot with rice balls (omo tuo) or fufu.

3. Explaining How Something Works

Process writing can also explain natural or social processes. "Rain forms through the water cycle. First, the sun heats water in seas, rivers and lakes, and it evaporates into water vapour. As the vapour rises, it cools and condenses into tiny droplets that form clouds. When the droplets join and become heavy, they fall as rain. The water then flows back into rivers and seas, and the cycle begins again."

4. Planning Your Process Paragraph

1. Reading Passage: The Akosombo Dam

The Akosombo Dam is one of the most important structures in Ghana. Built on the Volta River and completed in 1965, it created Lake Volta, which is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world by surface area.

The main purpose of the dam was to produce hydroelectric power. Water stored in the lake flows through huge turbines, which turn generators to produce electricity. This electricity supplies homes, schools, hospitals and industries across Ghana and is also sold to neighbouring countries such as Togo and Benin.

The dam has brought other benefits too. Lake Volta supports fishing and transport, as boats carry goods and people between towns in the north and south. It also provides water for irrigation farming and attracts tourists.

However, the project had costs. About 80,000 people had to leave their homes when their land was flooded, and some waterborne diseases, such as bilharzia, increased around the lake. Today, the government continues to manage these challenges while relying on the dam for much of the nation's power.

2. Making Notes

3. Summary of the Passage

The Akosombo Dam, completed in 1965 on the Volta River, created Lake Volta and produces hydroelectric power for Ghana and its neighbours. The lake also supports fishing, transport, irrigation and tourism. However, the project displaced about 80,000 people and increased some waterborne diseases.

4. Tips for Summarising Expository Texts

Expository texts are often organised by topic, with each paragraph covering one aspect. Turn the paragraph topics into points. Keep key facts such as dates and numbers only when they are important. Use your own sentences, and join related points with linking words such as "also" and "however".