Basic 7 · Career Technology · Compliant Materials
How Paper and Fabric Are Made
In this topic you will explain how compliant materials are produced, tracing paper from wood to sheet and fabric from fibre to finished cloth.
By the end of these notes you should be able to:
- Describe the stages in making paper and card
- Describe the stages in making fabric from fibres
- Relate each production stage to the properties of the finished material
What you already know
- Types and properties of compliant materials
Copy everything that has a blue line on its left into your notebook. The other parts are for reading.
Lesson 1
- Strand
- Materials for Production
- Sub-strand
- Compliant Materials
- Indicator
- B7.2.1.1.3 – Explain how compliant materials are manufactured/produced
Introduction
The exercise book on your desk began its life as a tree or as old paper. Turning hard wood into thin, smooth paper takes several careful stages.
1. Raw Materials for Paper
Paper is made from cellulose fibres found in plants. Most paper comes from wood, especially softwoods such as pine, and fast-growing trees such as eucalyptus. Other sources include sugarcane waste (bagasse), bamboo, cotton rags and recycled paper. Sawdust and wood chips from sawmills can also be pulped.
2. Stages in Making Paper
| Stage | What happens |
|---|---|
| 1. preparing the wood | logs are debarked and cut into small chips |
| 2. pulping | chips are cooked with chemicals or ground mechanically to separate the fibres into a wet pulp |
| 3. cleaning and bleaching | dirt is removed and the pulp may be whitened |
| 4. beating | fibres are beaten to make them bond better; dyes and fillers may be added |
| 5. forming the sheet | the watery pulp is spread on a moving wire mesh; water drains away and fibres mat together |
| 6. pressing | rollers squeeze out more water and make the sheet even |
| 7. drying | the sheet passes over heated cylinders to dry |
| 8. finishing | it is smoothed (calendered), coated, cut and packed |
3. How Card and Board Are Made
Card and board are made in the same way, but more pulp is used to make a thicker sheet, or several layers of paper are pressed and glued together. Corrugated board is made by passing paper between hot, ridged rollers to form a wavy layer (fluting), which is then glued between two flat sheets for strength.
4. Making Recycled Paper by Hand
- Tear waste paper into small pieces and soak it in water overnight.
- Blend or pound it into a smooth pulp.
- Pour the pulp into a basin of water and dip a mesh frame (mould and deckle) into it.
- Lift the frame flat so a layer of pulp settles on the mesh.
- Turn the wet sheet onto a cloth and press out the water.
- Dry it in the sun and peel it off.
5. Paper and the Environment
Paper making uses many trees, much water and energy. Recycling paper saves trees, reduces waste in dumps and uses less energy. One way you can help is to use both sides of a sheet, reuse envelopes and boxes, and put waste paper in a recycling bin.
New words
- pulp
- A soft, wet mass of separated plant fibres.
- cellulose
- The natural fibre in plant cell walls.
- calendering
- Smoothing paper between rollers.
- fluting
- The wavy middle layer of corrugated board.
Summary
- Paper is made from cellulose fibres in wood, bagasse, bamboo or recycled paper.
- The stages are wood preparation, pulping, cleaning, beating, forming, pressing, drying and finishing.
- Card is thicker paper or layers of paper; recycling paper saves trees and energy.
Class activity: Paper-Making Sequence
- Examine a sawdust sample and samples of paper and card.
- Arrange printed cards showing the paper-making stages in the correct order.
- Explain how card differs from paper using your samples.
You need: Sawdust sample, Paper, Card samples, Printed paper-making sequence
Exercises
Answer in your exercise book first, then check your answers.
1. The main fibre in paper is…
- A. cellulose
- B. nylon
- C. wool
- D. steel
Show answer
Answer: cellulosePlant fibre.2. In which stage is water squeezed out by rollers?
- A. Pressing
- B. Pulping
- C. Debarking
- D. Bleaching
Show answer
Answer: PressingRollers press the sheet.3. Card can be made by gluing layers of paper together.
- A. True
- B. False
Show answer
Answer: TrueLayers add thickness.4. A soft, wet mass of plant fibres is called ______.
Show answer
Answer: pulpPaper raw material.5. List the main stages in making paper.
Show answer
Answer: Preparing wood, pulping, cleaning, beating, forming, pressing, drying, finishing.In order.6. Explain two ways in which recycling paper helps the environment.
Show answer
Answer: It saves trees from being cut and reduces waste in dumps (also saves water and energy).Any two.
Lesson 2
- Strand
- Materials for Production
- Sub-strand
- Compliant Materials
- Indicator
- B7.2.1.1.3 – Explain how compliant materials are manufactured/produced
Introduction
The cotton in your school uniform may have grown on a farm in northern Ghana. Before it became cloth, it was picked, cleaned, spun into yarn and woven.
1. From Fibre to Yarn
| Stage | What happens |
|---|---|
| 1. harvesting | cotton bolls are picked from the plant |
| 2. ginning | seeds are separated from the cotton fibres |
| 3. cleaning and carding | fibres are cleaned and combed so they lie in the same direction |
| 4. drawing | fibres are pulled into a long, soft rope called a sliver |
| 5. spinning | the sliver is twisted into strong, thin yarn |
Spinning is the key change. Loose fibres are weak, but twisting them together locks them into a strong, continuous yarn. In Ghana, cotton is grown mainly in the northern regions, and some is still hand-spun by women using a spindle.
2. From Yarn to Fabric
| Method | How it works | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| weaving | two sets of yarn (warp and weft) cross at right angles | kente, calico, denim |
| knitting | one yarn is looped into rows of stitches | T-shirts, socks, jumpers |
| bonding (non-woven) | fibres are pressed, glued or heated together | felt, interfacing |
3. Kente Weaving
Kente is woven on a narrow horizontal loom. The warp threads run along the length and the weaver passes the weft threads across using a shuttle, while pressing pedals with the feet to lift and lower the warp. The result is a long, narrow strip about ten centimetres wide. Many strips are sewn together edge to edge to make a full cloth. Bonwire in the Ashanti Region and Agotime-Kpetoe in the Volta Region are famous kente-weaving towns.
4. Finishing the Fabric
After weaving or knitting, fabric is finished to improve it. It may be washed, bleached, dyed, printed or treated to resist creases, shrinking or water. In Ghana, wax prints and fancy prints are produced by printing colourful designs onto cotton cloth in factories.
5. Caring for Fabrics
The care label on clothing tells you how to wash, dry and iron it. Cotton can be washed in warm water and ironed hot; silk and wool need cool water and a cool iron. Following care instructions prevents shrinking, fading and damage.
New words
- ginning
- Separating seeds from cotton fibres.
- spinning
- Twisting fibres into yarn.
- warp
- Threads running along the length of a loom.
- weft
- Threads passed across the warp.
Summary
- Cotton is harvested, ginned, carded, drawn and spun into yarn.
- Yarn is woven, knitted or bonded into fabric.
- Kente is woven in narrow strips that are sewn together.
Class activity: Fibre to Fabric
- Separate the fibres of a raw cotton sample gently.
- Compare the loose fibres with a piece of spun yarn and a kente offcut.
- Arrange the production stages in order and explain each one.
You need: Raw cotton sample, Spun yarn, Kente fabric offcut
Exercises
Answer in your exercise book first, then check your answers.
1. Separating seeds from cotton fibres is called…
- A. ginning
- B. spinning
- C. weaving
- D. dyeing
Show answer
Answer: ginningDone by a cotton gin.2. Kente is famously woven at…
- A. Bonwire
- B. Tamale
- C. Takoradi
- D. Ho
Show answer
Answer: BonwireIn the Ashanti Region.3. Spinning twists fibres into yarn.
- A. True
- B. False
Show answer
Answer: TrueTwisting adds strength.4. The threads passed across the warp are the ______.
Show answer
Answer: weftCrosswise threads.5. Describe the stages from cotton fibre to yarn.
Show answer
Answer: Harvesting, ginning, cleaning and carding, drawing into a sliver, and spinning.In order.6. Explain why spinning makes cotton stronger.
Show answer
Answer: Twisting the fibres locks them together so they grip one another and form a continuous strong yarn.Fibres lock together.
Homework
- Make a small sheet of recycled paper at home with an adult's help, or draw the stages of kente weaving.